https://www.timeshighereducation.com/sites/default/files/styles/the_breaking_news_image_style/public/books-open-on-table.jpg?itok=i4wJDL9A
Reading is a complex "cognitive
process" of decoding symbols in
order to construct or derive meaning (reading comprehension). Reading is a means
of language acquisition, communication, and
of sharing information and ideas. Like all languages,
it is a complex interaction between the text and the reader which is shaped by
the reader’s prior knowledge, experiences, attitude, and language community
which is culturally and socially situated. The reading process requires
continuous practice, development, and refinement. In addition, reading requires
creativity and critical analysis. Consumers of literature make ventures with
each piece, innately deviating from literal words to create images that make
sense to them in the unfamiliar places the texts describe. Because reading is
such a complex process, it cannot be controlled or restricted to one or two
interpretations. There are no concrete laws in reading, but rather allows
readers an escape to produce their own products introspectively. This promotes
deep exploration of texts during interpretation.[1]Readers
use a variety of reading strategies to assist with decoding (to translate
symbols into sounds or visual representations of speech)
and comprehension. Readers may use context clues to identify the meaning of
unknown words. Readers integrate the words they have read into their existing
framework of knowledge or schema (schemata
theory).
Other types of reading are not speech based writing
systems, such as music notation or pictograms.
The common link is the interpretation of symbols to
extract the meaning from the visual notations or tactile signals (as in the
case of Braille).
Reading skills
Literacy is the ability to use the symbols of
a writing system. It is the ability to interpret what the information symbols
represent, and to be able to re-create those same symbols so that others can
derive the same meaning. Illiteracy is
the inability to derive meaning from the symbols used in a writing
system. Dyslexia refers to a cognitive difficulty
with reading and writing. It is defined as brain-based type of learning
disability that specifically impairs a person's ability to read. The term
dyslexia can refer to two disorders: developmental dyslexia which is a learning disability; alexia (acquired
dyslexia) refers to reading difficulties that occur
following brain damage, stroke, or progressive illness
Major
predictors of an individual's ability to read both alphabetic and nonalphabetic
scripts are phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming and verbal IQ. Being taught to read at an early
age (such as five years old) does not ultimately result in better reading
skills, and if it replaces more developmentally appropriate activities, then it
may cause other harms. Reading rate
Average reading rate
in words per minute (wpm) depending on age and measured with
different tests in English, French and German
Reading
speed requires a long time to reach adult levels. The table to the right shows
how reading-rate varies with age,[18] regardless of the period (1965 to 2005)
and the language (English, French, German). The Taylor values probably are
higher, for disregarding students who failed the comprehension test. The
reading test by the French psychologist Pierre Lefavrais
("L'alouette", published in 1967) tested reading aloud, with a
penalty for errors, and could, therefore, not be a rate greater than 150 wpm.
According to Carver (1990), children's reading speed increases throughout the
school years. On average, from grade 2 to college, reading rate increases 14
standard-length words per minute each year (where one standard-length word is
defined as six characters in text, including punctuation and spaces). Note that
the data from Taylor (English) and Landerl (German) are based on texts of
increasing difficulty; other data were obtained when all age groups were
reading the same text.
Rates
of reading include reading for memorization (fewer than 100 words per minute [wpm]); reading for learning
(100–200 wpm); reading for comprehension (200–400 wpm); and skimming (400–700
wpm). Reading for comprehension is the essence of the daily reading of most
people. Skimming is for superficially processing large quantities of text at a
low level of comprehension (below 50%).
Advice
for choosing the appropriate reading-rate includes reading flexibly, slowing
when concepts are closely presented and when the material is new, and
increasing when the material is familiar and of thin concept. Speed reading courses and books often
encourage the reader to continually accelerate; comprehension tests lead the
reader to believe his or her comprehension is continually improving; yet,
competence-in-reading requires knowing that skimming is dangerous, as a
default habit.
Scientific
studies have demonstrated that reading—defined here as capturing and decoding
all the words on every page—faster than 900 wpm is not feasible given the
limits set by the anatomy of the eye.[19]
Reading
speed has been used as a measure in research to determine the effect of
interventions on human vision. A Cochrane Systematic
Review used reading speed in words per minute as the primary
outcome in comparing different reading aids for adults with low vision.
Skill development
Both
lexical and sub-lexical cognitive processes contribute to how we learn to read.
Sub-lexical
reading involves teaching reading by associating characters or groups of
characters with sounds or by using phonicsor synthetic phonics learning and teaching
methodology, sometimes argued to be in competition with whole language methods.
Lexical
reading
involves
acquiring words or phrases without attention to the characters or groups of
characters that compose them or by using whole language learning and teaching
methodology. Sometimes argued to be in competition with phonics and synthetic
phonics methods, and that the whole language approach tends to impair learning
how to spell.
Other
methods of teaching and learning to read have developed, and become somewhat
controversial.
Learning
to read in a second language, especially in adulthood, may be a different
process than learning to read a native language in childhood. There are cases
of very young children learning to read without having been taught. Such was
the case with Truman Capote
who reportedly taught himself to read and write at the age of five. There are
also accounts of people who taught themselves to read by comparing street signs
or Biblical passages to speech. The novelist Nicholas Delbanco taught himself to read at
age six during a transatlantic crossing by studying a book about boats.
Brain
activity in young and older children can be used to predict future reading
skill. Cross model mapping between the orthographic and phonologic areas in the
brain are critical in reading. Thus, the amount of activation in the left
dorsal inferior frontal gyrus while performing reading tasks can be used to
predict later reading ability and advancement. Young children with higher
phonological word characteristic processing have significantly better reading
skills later on than older children who focus on whole-word orthographic
representation.
Tidak ada komentar:
Posting Komentar